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The Black Hawk War, or Black Hawk's War, from 1865 to 1872, is the name of the estimated 150 battles, skirmishes, raids, and military engagements between Mormons and other settlers in Sanpete County, Sevier County and other parts of central and southern Utah, and members of 16 Ute, Paiute, Apache and Navajo tribes, led by a local Ute war chief, Antonga Black Hawk.〔(The Black Hawk War in Utah, by Phillip B. Gottfredson ) 〕 The conflict resulted in the abandonment of some settlements and postponed Mormon expansion in the region. The years 1865 to 1867 were by far the most intense of the conflict, though intermittent conflict occurred until around 200 federal troops intervened in 1872. John A. Peterson describes his point of view of the time Latter-day Saints considered themselves in a state of open warfare. They built scores of forts (as Willden Fort ) and deserted dozens of settlements while hundreds of Mormon militiamen chased their illusive () adversaries through the wilderness with little success. Requests for a federal troops went unheeded for eight years. Unable to distinguish "guilty" from "friendly" tribesmen, frustrated Mormons at times indiscriminately killed Indians, including women and children.〔(【引用サイトリンク】 title=Utah History of the Black Hawk War ) == Causes == Definitive reasons for the Black Hawk War are unknown. Lack of written history at the time makes the determination of cause and effect difficult. However, stories and opinions passed down by word of mouth from the side of the Native Americans and the settlers give insight into the state of affairs at the time leading up to the conflict. It seems that both Ute and settler apologetics agree that the war was not started by one singular event, but by a series of events. Both parties wanted the land, but by the time the war started each side likely believed that both cultures could no longer live together peacefully. They had tried to live in harmony since about 1849 when Mormon pioneers settled in Manti and joined the Sanpits tribe in the Sanpete valley. However, within a few years of 1849 there were sporadic acts of aggression on both sides leading up to the war. In 1865 the Jake Arapeen and John Lowry, Jr. incident in Manti marked the official beginning of the open warfare between the natives and the settlers, Ever since Mormon pioneers moved into Utah Valley in 1848 and built their fort at Provo, the Timpanogos Ute bands had been gradually pushed aside by settlers' demands for grazing land and farmland. Frustrations on both sides led to several short battles. After the 'Fort Utah War' in 1850, the 'Walker War' in 1853–1854, and the 'Tintic War' in 1856, Mormon leaders were able to convince the Ute leaders to stop hostilities when the losses incurred by Utes were compensated with food, presents, and promises of future friendship. Chief Blackhawk was directly involved in these wars either as a combatant or in being coerced to serve as a guide for Mormon punitive expeditions against his people. Utes had survived with the geography and harsh climate of Utah for centuries, but white settlement disrupted the economic equilibrium. Ute bands in Utah's central valleys were pushed out of traditional hunting and foraging areas by Mormon towns, farms, and livestock. Some Ute bands struggled to feed themselves. Cattle or horses put out to graze by the settlers were occasionally taken as a kind of 'rent' payment for the settlers' use of the land where Utes had lived for centuries. During the Black Hawk War, chief Black Hawk and allies made a business out of taking thousands of heads of livestock, transporting them out of Utah Territory and selling or trading them for goods and money with 'brokers' like Isaac Potter. Some suggest that Black Hawk believed that the loss of livestock was the quickest way to interfere with the growth of settlements. Troubles that arose between the Mormons and the Utes resulted from culture clashes. Settlers refused to accept the Native American culture, and Native Americans rejected the settlers' culture of property rights. Native American culture included sharing of cattle, while the settlers' culture involved the buying and selling of land. Coexistence and compromise seemed unattainable. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Black Hawk War (1865–72)」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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